CURRICULUM APPROACHES

          I.    THE CURRICULUM APPROACHES

               Stakeholders may use one or more approaches in planning, implementing and evaluating a curriculum. Approaches to curriculum development are the strategies employed in organizing curriculum content and learning activities that are presented to the learners. They are the ways of attaining a functional curriculum development. Mbakwem (2009) writes that curriculum approach and design can be used interchangeably. Approaches to curriculum development can also be regarded as models of curriculum development. There are different approaches to curriculum development, which are presented according to ones focus on the elements of curriculum development and the level of operation of the curriculum. No matter the approach or design or model, they all cover the same scope needed to develop a functional curriculum.

A.   The Four-Step Approach

               The four steps are: selection of objectives, selection of learning experiences, organization of learning experiences and evaluation. Their understanding of curriculum development approach is that the developer must first of all select the objectives which they believe propels the other steps, since every other step has focus on attainment of the objectives. A curriculum developer in answering the questions would develop a good curriculum because he would have selected the objectives, learning experiences, organized the learning experiences and embarked on evaluation. The questions are specific and help the curriculum developer to be on track, always focusing on the objectives.

                Peyton and Peyton (1998) note that the curricular cycle “involves development through needs assessment, design and implementation phases. After this, outcomes are reviewed and evaluated against the original needs assessment. Needs change with societal expectations. The emphasis on different aspects varies with the participants’ and teachers’ perceived needs. The dynamic curriculum requires change and resource management”

Fig. 1 “Four-step Curriculum Approach” from Peyton and Peyton (1998).

B.    The Five-Step Approach

Fig. 2 “Five-step Curriculum Approach” from Nicholls and Nicholls (1978).

               The five-step approach presents a departure from the four-step approach as discussed above. Nicholls and Nicholls (1978) recommended this type of approach. The additional step is due to their emphasis on situational analysis. They see this as a very crucial component of curriculum development process. Situational analysis is the diagnosis of all the factors and issues involved in curriculum planning and development. These factors are identified and analyzed to ensure that the development of the curriculum will be hitch free and that a worthwhile and functional curriculum is developed. They believe that embarking on situational analysis would facilitate selection of the objectives that reflect the needs of the society.

               So Nicholls and Nicholls approach include: situational analysis, selection of objectives, selection of content, methods, and evaluation. The four-step approach proponents did not use content but learning experiences, to qualify the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values presented in the curriculum for the learners to imbibe. Nicholls and Nicholls call it content. They also refer to organization of learning experiences as methods. Methods deal with the arrangement of the curriculum materials to be presented to the learners, which is the same as organization. It deals with observing the principles of effective organization, which include sequencing, integration, continuity and scope. Their approach is cyclic in nature which depicts a flexible process whereby the curriculum worker can start from any point to develop the curriculum. This presents curriculum development as a continuous and on-going process.

               In the same vein, Wheeler's (1980) approach supports that of Nicholls and Nicholls. His model is a five-step, cyclic approach, made up of: Selection of objectives, selection of content, selection of learning experiences, organization of content and learning experiences, and evaluation. Wheeler differed from the others by accommodating both learning experiences and content, which he shows as two different components. The content is the body of knowledge, the subject matter, the facts, ideas etc. presented to the learners, while the learning experiences are the activities embarked upon by the learners to help them learn the content. They can be physical or mental; overt or covert. They are learner-oriented and goal-oriented. So the learning experiences are the means, while the content is the end. Wheeler also sees the organization of the two as the methods applied in the implementation of the curriculum.

 

Fig. 3 “Five-step Curriculum Approach” from Wheeler (1980).

Wheeler neglects situational analysis which deals with needs analysis. It shows that curriculum is an on-going activity because the society is dynamic, and so, curriculum, a vehicle used to produce functional members of the society should also be dynamic.

C.   John Hopkins University Approach

               An approach to curriculum development which was developed by physician educators at John Hopkins University for clinical educators was presented by Kern, Thomas, Howa and Bass (1998). This approach has six steps, which include: problem identification, needs assessment of targeted learners, goals and objectives, educational strategies, implementation, evaluation and feedback. They see the approach as logical, systematic, dynamic, and interactive. These six steps are discussed briefly in details.

Fig. 4 “John Hopkins University Approach” from Kern, Thomas, Howa and Bass (1998).

a.    Problem Identification

               This is the first step. The main reason for developing a curriculum is to train learners to be useful members of their society. A functional curriculum focuses on the problems of the society and so in developing a curriculum these problems form the basis for selecting the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to be inculcated in the learners to equip them to solve their problems. In identifying the problems, the learner characteristics, their current status and what they should be are analyzed to identify the problems. The society is also studied to sift the problems, which will be dealt with in developing the curriculum.

b.    Needs Assessment of Targeted Learners

               At this step, a needs assessment of the targeted learners is embarked upon. It involves a process by which the curriculum developer finds out the differences between what is and what should be; the actual characteristics of the targeted group of learners, and what obtains in their environment. The first step in any curriculum development process involves research that reviews recent issues and trends of the discipline, both within the society and across the nation. This research allows a curriculum committee to identify key issues and trends that will support the needs assessment that should be conducted and the philosophy that should be developed. Tyler (1971) describes needs as the gap between where the learner is and where he/she wants to be or should be. To be able to close this gap, the required knowledge, skills, attitudes and values must be included in the curriculum.

               As a result of this process, committee members are likely to identify many of the following issues and trends that will need to be addressed as the curriculum development process moves forward: meeting the needs of all students; learning theory and other cognitive psychology findings on how students learn; what determines developmental readiness or developmental appropriateness; the current expectations of the field; the knowledge of and readiness for change on the part of teachers; the availability of resources; the role and availability of information and technology resources; scheduling issues; methods and purposes of assessments; and professional development.

c.    Goals and Objectives

               This is the third step. Goals are broad statements of intended learning outcomes. They are stated using broad terms that are not measurable until they are broken down into action verbs. Objectives are specific statements of intensions of what is expected of the learners at the end of teaching session. They are stated in action verbs, which are measurable. Once the problems are identified the needs of the targeted group analyzed, the broad goals are formulated and broken down to specific objectives. Subsequent steps hinge on the specific objectives because they are put in place to facilitate attainment of the objectives.

In selecting the objectives, the three behaviors: cognitive, affective and psychomotor are borne in mind. This is to ensure that the curriculum is comprehensive and will produce the total man. The objectives drive every other activity in curriculum development. This is why it is important to use specific and clear action verbs to avoid misunderstanding. Goals and objectives are important because they help direct the choice of curricular content; suggest what learning methods will be most effective; enable evaluation of learners and the curriculum; suggest what evaluation methods are appropriate; clearly communicate to others what the curriculum addresses and hopes to achieve.

d.    Educational Strategies

Educational strategies are the detailed means of facilitating learning. It involves the manipulations of the learning environment to motivate learners to learn. A method may accommodate a number of strategies, which means that strategies are sub-sets of method. In this step, the educational strategies are developed. The strategies must promote the attainment of the objectives. The strategies involve both the activities and the contents. The activities are the means while the contents are the ends. This is why active participation of the learners in curriculum endeavors is encouraged. Today, interactive strategies such as collaboration, cooperation, learner autonomy, use of songs, small group activities and drama are encouraged.

e.    Implementation

               Implementation is putting into action, the planned curriculum. It is the combined efforts of the learner, the teacher and other stakeholders in ensuring effective execution of the curriculum document. It calls for teacher-learner, learner-learner and learner-classroom environment interactions. Careful attention must be paid to issues of implementation. The curriculum developer must ensure that sufficient resources, political and financial support, and administrative strategies have been developed to successfully implement the curriculum. It has been observed in Nigeria, that lofty policies which are formulated are not adequately implemented, especially when the political will is lacking.

f.      Evaluation and Feedback

               Most curriculum development models put evaluation as the last step. Evaluation and feedback closes the loop in the curriculum development cycle. Evaluation deals with the extent of attainment of the stated objectives. It is the process of identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum. It exposes what the learners have learnt and the gaps to be closed. It is through evaluation that the feedback which is knowledge of result (KR) is obtained. The feedback informs the curriculum developer about the next action to embark on. This is why Wheeler sees curriculum development as a cyclic activity which has no end as the feedback is ploughed back to the entire process for improvement.

PART IV: CONCLUSION

               Base on the definition of the curriculum discussed in the first part, it is indeed true that curriculum depends on the needs of the learners. It actually boiled down into one common factor – the learners. Since it is the focus of everyone to have a desirable curriculum, we must work hand by hand to help and develop learners to be productive, active and responsible members of the modern society.  Regardless if it is printed or hidden curriculum, it is good that we place more stress on the development of moral virtues particularly discipline, honesty, social responsibility, hard work and obedience. These values and behavior must be present in the curriculum since we want to have a holistic development in the learners.  It is also functional if the curriculum is designed not in terms of facts or subject matter to be mastered but in terms of learnings to be acquired and applied in meeting everyday situations.

               In terms on designing a curriculum, it is an effective curriculum if it is a multi-step, on-going and cyclical process. There are many approaches to curriculum development as presented in this report. No matter the choice of approach, the curriculum developer must be guided     by the principle that the learners our main concern. The stakeholders must establish a clear philosophy and set achievable goals that guide the entire curriculum and the decisions that affect each aspect of the curriculum. A basic framework must be outlined for what to do, how to do it, when to do it and how to know if it has been achieved. He must allow for flexibility and encourage experimentation and innovation within an overall structure. This is evident in the curriculum given by the DepEd, but the most important is to regionalize the contents since the needs of the learners differ from one region to another.

               The curriculum must promote interdisciplinary approaches and the integration when appropriate. Methods of assessing the achievement of the curriculum goals and objectives must be suggested and a means for revision and improvement provided.

               There is no perfect approach. However, to be effective, an approach must attract acceptance of the teachers and other stakeholders in the education of the learners. This acceptance will be far easier to attain when the curriculum approach reflects child growth and development, the philosophy of the society, principles of teaching and learning, needs and varying abilities of the learners, ease of implementation; and cooperatively developed by a broad-based committee of teachers and relevant experts. The approaches presented here resemble each other.

Likewise, there is also no perfect curriculum. Because the term perfect are relatively different from one place to another. There’s no need to make it perfect. As long as it caters all the needs of the learners, and adapt to the ever changing standards of the society, curriculum becomes desirable.

               Curriculum development is a cooperative venture among teachers, supervisors, curriculum experts, learners, parents and non-school people. It is also a continuous process since we can never exhaust the possibilities of improving the teaching-learning situation.

PART V: REFERENCES

 Alacapınar, F. (2008). Effectiveness of project-based learning. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 32, 17-35.

Bago, Adelaida L. Curriculum Development, The Philippine Experience. Dela Salle University Press, Inc., Philippines, 2001. p. 3- 39

Beneke, S., & Ostrosky, M. M. (2008). Teachers’ views of the efficacy of incorporating the project approach into classroom practice with diverse learners. Young Children, (1), 1-9.

Bureau of Curriculum and Instruction (2006).Guide to curriculum development: purposes, practices and procedures. Hartford: Connecticut State Department of Education.

Chinyere, Nzewi, U.M. & Offorma, G.C. (eds), Curriculum diversification in Nigeria. Nigeria: Curriculum Organization of Nigeria (CON). ,Giles, H.H.; McCutchen, S.P. &Zechiel, A.N. (1942).Exploring the curriculum. New York: Harper & Row Publishers Inc.

Darling-Hammond, L. (1997). The right to learn: A blueprint for creating schools that work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Doll, W. E., Jr. (1993) How We Think. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.

Educational Resources Information Center, “Implementing Curriculum Change”, Educational Management Review Series (Oregon:University of Oregon, 1966), p. 1.

Folsom, Christy (2009). Teaching for Intellectual and Emotional Learning (TIEL): a model for creating powerful curriculum. Rowman and Littlefield Education.

Grant, M. M., & Branch, R. M. (2005). Project-based learning in a middle school: Tracing abilities through the artifacts of learning. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 65-99. United States.

Hamilton, J.D. (1999) Outcomes in medical education must be wide, long and deep, Medical Teacher, Vol.21, No 2, 1999 

Hilda Taba, Curriculum Development Theory and Practice (New York: Haircut, Bruce and World, Inc., 1962), p. 9.

Ivowi, U.M.O. (1994), Concept of curriculum implementation. In Offorma (ed), Curriculum Implementation and Instruction. .' Onitsha: Uni World Educational Publishers.

Ivowi, U.M.O. (2009). Definition or meaning of curriculum (an operational) definition suited for Nigeria. In Ivowi, U.M.O., Nwufo, Kate, Nwagbara.

Kern, D., Thomas, D., Howa D., & Bass, E. (1998).Curriculum development for medical education: a six-step approach. Baltimore & London: The John Hopkins University Press.

Mbakwem, J.U.(2009). Diversification through the use of multiple curriculum designs and approaches. In Ivowi, U.M.O. Nwufo Kate, Nwagbara C, Nzewi, U.M. & Offorma, G.C. (eds) Curriculum Diversification in Nigeria. Nigeria: Curriculum Organization of Nigeria (CON).

McKimm, J. Case study 1: developing a new undergraduate medical course at Imperial College School of Medicine in Roberts K. and Ludvigsen, C. (1998) Project management for health professionals, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford 

Offorma, G.C. (1994) Curriculum design. In Offorma (ed), Curriculum Implementation and Instruction. Onitsha: Uni world Educational Publishers. _

Offorma, G.C. (2002). Curriculum Theory and Planning. (ed) Enugu: Donze Press.

Osmundo N. Saaguil et al., Fundamentals of Curriculum Development (Manila: Acenas Printing Press, 1965)

Prideaux, D. (2000) The emperor’s new clothes: from objectives to outcomes, Medical Education, 2000; 34: 168 – 169 

Richard Whitfield, Diciplines of the curriculum (New York: s. 1971).

Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum Development: Theory And Practice. New York: Harcourt Brace, Jovanovich. ..Tyler,          RW. (1971). Basic principle of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: TheUniversity of Chicago Press.

Wheeler, D.K. (1978). Curriculum Process. London: Hodder &Stoughton.

Willis, P. (1977) Learning To Labour, Saxon House, Farnborough, 1977. Pp. 62-63

Internet Sources:

British Medical Journal (BMJ) at http://bmj.com/cgi/collection/teaching 

http://omni.ac.uk/browse/mesh/detail/C0013631L0013631.html 

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280554159